Karbala (Arabic: كربلاء‎; BGN: Al-Karbalā’; also referred to as Karbalā’ al-Muqaddasah) is a city in Iraq, located about 100 km (62 mi) southwest of Baghdad. Karbala is the capital of Karbala Governorate, and has an estimated population of 572,300 people (2003).

The city, best known as the location of the Battle of Karbala (680), is amongst the holiest cities for Shī‘ah Muslims after Makkah, Madinah, and Najaf. The city contains the Imam Husayn Shrine which is considered sacred by Shias, as well as the shrine of his half brother, al-Abbas ibn ‘Ali.
Etymology
There are several theories as to the origin of the name Karbala. One traditional hypothesis is Turkish geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi‘s belief that the name is an alternate Arabic feminine version of karbalah “soft earth”.^[1] Another theory is that the name came from the Aramaic root Karb or Qarb; meaning “Near”, and Alah; meaning God. Hence, the word ‘Karbala’ signifies ‘Near God’.^[2] Alternatively, it has been said to be derived from the Aramaic word Kora, meaning place for making bricks, for the nearby ancient city of Babil, hence Karbabil, which became Karbala by contraction.

According to Shī‘ah belief, the true meaning of the name Karbalā was narrated to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel as being, “the land which will cause many agonies (karb) and afflictions (balā).”^[3]

About the city

The city is one of Iraq’s wealthiest, profiting both from religious visitors and agricultural produce, especially dates. It is made up of two districts, “Old Karbala,” the religious centre, and “New Karbala,” the residential district containing Islamic schools and government buildings.

At the centre of the old city is the Masjid al-Husayn, the tomb of Husayn ibn ‘Ali, grandson of Muhammad by his daughter Fatima tuz-Zahra and ‘Alī ibn Abu Tālib. Hussein’s tomb is a place of pilgrimage for many Shī‘ī Muslims, especially on the anniversary of the battle, the Day of ‘Āshūrā. Many elderly pilgrims travel there to await death, as they believe the tomb to be one of the gates to paradise. Another focal point of the Shī‘ī pilgrimage to Karbala is al-Makhayam, traditionally believed to be the location of Husayn’s camp, where the martyrdom of Husayn and his followers is publicly commemorated. Many pious Shi’a ask to be buried in and around Karbala and a good portion of Karbala’s economy is wrapped up in the corpse and funeral business.

The city’s association with Shī‘a Islām have made it a centre of religious place as well as worship; it has more than 100 mosques and 23 religious schools, of which possibly the most famous is that of Ibn Fahid, constructed some 440 years ago.

The city sprang up around the two shrines of al-Hussayn and his brother al-Abbas, and as such the layout of the city is centered around the shrines. In 1994, Saddam Hussein destroyed the houses between the shrines in order to created a huge concrete highway between the two.

History

Karbala’s prominence in Shīa traditions is the result of the Battle of Karbala, fought on the site of the modern city on October 10, 680 AD (10 Muharram 61 AH). Both Husayn and his brother ʻAbbās ibn ʻAlī were buried by the local Banī Asad tribe at what later became known as the Mashhad Al-Hussein. The battle itself occurred as a result of al-Husayn’s refusal to accept the Umayyad Yazid ibn Mu’awiya as caliph. The Kufan governor, Ubaydallah ibn Ziyad, sent thousands of horsemen against al-Husayn as he traveled to Kufa. The horsemen, under ‘Umar ibn Sa’d, were ordered to deny al-Husayn and his followers water until al-Husayn agreed to give an oath of allegiance. On 9 Muharram, al-Husayn refused and asked to be given the night to pray. On 10 Muharram, al-Husayn prayed the morning prayer and led his troops into battle along with his brother al-Abbas. All of al-Husayn’s followers, including all of his present sons, were slaughtered.^[4]

In 63 AH (682 AD), Yazid ibn Mu’awiya released the surviving members of al-Husayn’s family from prison. On their way to the Hijaz, they stopped at the site of the battle. There is record of Sulayman ibn Surad going on pilgrimage to the site as early as 65 AH (685 AD). The city began as a tomb and shrine to al-Husayn and grew as a city in order to meet the needs of pilgrims.

The city and tombs were greatly expanded by successive Muslim rulers, but suffered repeated destruction from attacking armies. The original shrine was destroyed by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil in 850 but was rebuilt in its present form around 979, only to be partly destroyed by fire in 1086 and rebuilt yet again.

Like Najaf, the city suffered from severe water shortages that were only resolved in the early 18th century by building a dam at the head of the Hussayniyya Canal. In 1737, the city replaced Isfahan in Iran as the main centre of Shī’a scholarship. In the mid-eighteenth century it was dominated by the dean of scholarship, Yusuf Al Bahrani, a key proponent of the Akhbari tradition of Shī’a thought, until his death in 1772,^[5] after which the more state-centric Usuli school became more influential. It suffered severe damage in 1802 when an invading Wahhabi army sacked the city.

After the Wahhabi invasion, the city enjoyed semi-autonomy during Ottoman rule, governed by a group of gangs and mafia variously allied with members of the ‘ulama. In order to reassert their authority, the Ottoman army laid siege to the city and killed many of its inhabitants in January 1843. This prompted many students and scholars to move to Najaf, which became the main Shī’a religious centre.^[6] Between 1850 and 1903, Karbala enjoyed a generous influx of money through the Oudh Bequest. The Shi’a ruled Indian Province of Awadh, known by the British as Oudh, had always sent money and pilgrims to the holy city. The Oudh money, 10 million rupees, originated in 1825 from the Awadh king Ghazi al-Din Haydar. One third was to go to his wives, and the other two thirds went to holy cities of Karbala and Najaf. When his wives died in 1850, the money piled up with interest in the hands of the British East India Company. The EIC sent the money to Karbala and Najaf per the wives’ wishes, in the hopes of influencing the ‘ulama in Britain’s favor. This effort to curry favor is generally considered to have been a failure.^[7]

 

Karbala’s development was strongly influenced by the Persians, who were the dominant community for many years (making up 75%^{[citation needed]}of the city’s population by the early 20th century). The Kammouna family (originally from Persians descendants) were custodians of the shrines for many years and effectively ran the city until it fell under the control of the British Empire in 1915. The Persian influence was deliberately reduced under British rule, with a series of nationality laws (such as a prohibition on foreigners occupying government posts) being introduced to squeeze out the Persian community. By 1957, they accounted for only 12% of the city’s population. They were subsequently assimilated into the Iraqi population, accepting Iraqi nationality.

The association of the city with Shīʻa religious traditions led to it being treated with suspicion by Iraq’s Sunni rulers. Under Saddam Hussein‘s rule, Shīʻa religious observances in the city were greatly restricted and many non-Iraqi Shīʻa were not permitted to travel there at all.

In March 1991, the city was badly damaged and many killed when a rebellion by local Shīʻa was put down with great brutality by Saddam‘s regime. The shrines and surrounding Shi’a houses, cemeteries, and hospitals became riddled with machine gun fire and military shelling. By April 1991, Saddam Hussein began an intense demolition project around the shrines in order to create a concrete perimeter. This “sanitary zone” created a wide open space in between and around the shrines. The shrines were rebuilt by 1994.^[8] The 2004 pilgrimage was the largest for decades, with over a million people attending. It was marred by bomb attacks on March 2, 2004, now known as the Ashoura massacre, which killed and wounded hundreds despite tight security in the city.

A big Shia festival passed off peacefully amid fears of possible violence that brought thousands of troops and police into the city. Hundreds of thousands of Shia pilgrims who had come together to celebrate the Shaabaniya ritual began leaving the southern city after September 9, 2006 climax ended days of chanting, praying and feasting. Heavy presence by police and Iraqi troops seemed to have kept out Wahhabi/Takfiri Al-Qaeda suicide bombers who have disrupted previous rituals.

On April 14, 2007, a car bomb exploded about 600 ft (180 m) from the shrine, killing 47^[9] and wounding over 150.

On January 19, 2008, 2 million Iraqi Shia pilgrims marched through Karbala city, Iraq to commemorate Ashura. 20,000 Iraqi troops and police guarded the event amid tensions due to clashes between Iraqi troops and Shia Muslims which left 263 people dead (in Basra and Nasiriya).^[10]

Ali ibn Abi Talib (علي بن أبي طالب) (c. 600 – 661) was the fourth Caliph or successor of Mohammad. He was born at Mecca where his father, Abu Talib, was an uncle of the Prophet. Ali himself was adopted by Mohammad and educated under his care.

While a boy, he distinguished himself by being the very first male to declare his adherence to the cause of Mohammad, who some years afterwards gave him his daughter Fatima Zahra in marriage. Ali proved himself to be a brave and faithful soldier, and when Mohammad died without male issue, a few emigrants thought Ali to have the best claim to succeed Mohammad. However, the first caliph was Abu Bakr, followed by Umar and Uthman. It was not until 656, after the murder of Uthman, that Ali assumed the title of caliph. Certain conspirators later claimed that he took no steps to prevent this murder, and use this story as perhaps the only blot upon his character. However, some stories also claim that Ali sent his sons Hussein and Hasan to defend Uthman, and was angered when they were unable to protect him.

Almost the first act of his reign was the suppression of a rebellion under Talha and Zobair (two eminent companions of Mohammad), who were instigated by Aisha, Mohammad’s widow, a bitter enemy of Ali, and one of the chief hindrances to his advancement to the caliphate. The rebel army was defeated at the Battle of Basra (also known as the Battle of the Camel); the two generals were killed, and Ayisha was escorted with all respect to Al-Madina and was allocated a pension.

Ali soon afterwards made Kufa his capital. His next care was to get rid of the opposition of Muawiyah, the governor of Syria, who had established himself at the head of a renegade army. A prolonged battle took place in July 657 in the plain of Siffin (Suffein), near the Euphrates; the fighting was at first, in favour of Ali, when suddenly a number of the enemy, fixing copies of the Quran to the points of their spears, exclaimed that “the matter ought to be settled by reference to this book, which forbids Muslims to shed each other’s blood”. The superstitious soldiers of Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that the issue be referred to arbitration. Abu Musa was appointed umpire on the part of Ali, and `Amr-ibn-al-As, a veteran diplomat, on the part of Muawiyah. It is said that `Amr persuaded Abu Musa that it would be for the advantage of Islam that neither candidate should reign, and asked him to give his decision first. Abu Musa having proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and Muawiya, `Amr declared that he also deposed Ali, and announced further that he invested Moawiya with the caliphate. This treacherous decision greatly injured the cause of Ali, which was still further weakened by the loss of Egypt.

It chanced, however — according to a legend, the details of which are quite uncertain — that three of the sect of the Kharijites had made an agreement to assassinate Ali, Muawiyah and `Amr, as the authors of disastrous feuds among the faithful. The only victim of this plot was Ali, who died at Kufa in 661, of the wound inflicted by a poisoned weapon. A splendid mosque called Meshed Ali was afterwards erected near the city at Najaf, the place of his burial (although some believe he is buried at Mazar-e Sharif in Afghanistan). He had eight wives after Fatima’s death, and in all, it is said, thirty-three children, one of whom, Hasan, a son of Fatima, is said by the Sunni tradition to have stepped aside to prevent furhter bloodshed among Muslims. Muawiyah, who founded the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs thus became the caliph. Ali’s descendants by Fatima are known as the Fatimids.

The question of Ali’s right to succeed to the caliphate is an article of faith which divided the Muslim world into two great sects, the Sunni and the Shia. The Sunnis believe that the prophet chose Abu Bakr to be the first caliph, while the Shia believe that he chose Ali and announced it in public in Ghadir Khom. Whatever the case, Ali did not challenge Abu Bakr or any of the later caliphs, rather he served as an advisor to them.

Ali is greatly respected by all Muslims, both Sunni and Shia. The Shia in particular venerate him as second only to the prophet, call him among several titles the “Leader of the Faithful” (Amir-ul-mumineen) and the “Lion of God” (Sher-i-Khuda), and celebrate the anniversary of his martyrdom; the Shia version of the adhan also includes an explicit reference to Ali. Ali is described as a bold, noble and generous man, “the last and worthiest of the primitive Muslims, who imbibed his religious enthusiasm from companionship with the prophet himself, and who followed to the last the simplicity of his example.” (See further Caliphate.)

In the eyes of the later Muslims he was remarkable for learning and wisdom, and there are extant collections of proverbs and verses which bear his name: the Sentences of Ali. The most famous collection of Ali’s speeches and letters is the Nahj al Balagha meaning “The peak of eloquence”.

His sons Hasan and Husayn are also revered by Muslims, especially the Shia.

Muslim history is the history of Muslim people. In the history of Islam the followers of the religion of Islam have impacted political history, economic history, and military history. The concept of the Islamic world is useful in observing the different periods of Islamic history; similarly useful is an understanding of the identification with a quasi-political community of believers, or ummah. The Islamic cultural identity, or identity as a member of the ummah, has influenced the history of the world. Islamic world territories haves included populations of people of other religions, such as Christian and Jews, and the levels have varied over the centuries.Three centuries after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (High Middle Ages), the Arab Caliphates extended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. The subsequent empires of the Umayyads, Abbasids, Fatimids, Ghaznavids, Seljuqs, Safavids, Mughals, and Ottomans were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and the importance of reading the Qur’an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.

In the later Middle Ages, destructive Mongol invasions from the East, and the loss of population in the Black Death, greatly weakened the traditional centre of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire was able to conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating an Islamic world power again, although one that was to prove unable to develop to meet the challenges of the Early Modern period.

Later, in modern history (18th and 19th centuries), many Islamic regions fell under the influence of European Great powers. After the First World War, the territorial possessions of the Ottoman empire (a Central Powers member) were partitioned and divided into several nations under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. Since 1924, there has been no degree of an accepted claim as Caliph (tr., “successor”) to the caliphate (tr.,”dominion of successor”) [ed., This had been last claimed by the Ottomans].

Modern notions of the texts of Islam portrays the unification of religion and state ruled by a Caliph, and the aspiration of achieving such a contemporary polity has been powerful in the recent centuries of Islamic history; although the size of the Islamic world, and the ambitions of local rulers, meant it has been unrealized since the early Islamic city-states and universal imperial period beginnings. The common slogan al-islam dinun was dawlatun` (tr., Islam is a religion and a state) is neither a Koranic verse nor a quote from the hadith but a 19th century political Salafi slogan popularized in opposition to Western Egyptian influence^[1] — a 19th century political origin being no problem for many other ideologies, but a handicap for a belief system predicated on following the scripture revealed in, and the ways of those who lived in, twelve centuries earlier.

Although affected by various other ideologies, such as communism, during much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have intensified during the contemporary period (early 21st century). The fast-growing global interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world of the 21st century.^[2] 

History

Islamic State periods

Main article: Historiography of early Islam

According to the professor of Middle Eastern studies, Majid Khadduri, the Islamic state and Muslim’s system of government evolved through various stages.^[3] The precise dates of various periods in history are more or less arbitrarily assumed according to the point of view adopted. The City-state period lasted from 620s to 630s. The Imperial period lasted from 630s to 750s. The Universal period lasted from 750s to around 900s. These corresponds to the early period of the Middle Ages. The “Decentralization” period lasted from around 900s to the early 1500s. This correspond to the high period and late period of the Middle Ages. The “Fragmentation” period lasted from around 1500s, the beginning with the early modern period, to the late 1910s. The contemporary period, referred to as the National period, lasted from 1910s to the present day. Any hard and fast line drawn to designate either the beginning or close of the period in question is arbitrary.

 

Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details.

Further information: Timeline of Muslim history

See also: Disputed issues in early Islamic history

[edit] Islamic Origins

Main articles: Quraysh, Banu Hashim, Muhammad, and Koran

Pre-Islamic Arabia saw Arab people who lived in the Arabian Plate before the rise of Islam in the 630s. In the south of Hedjaz (principal religious and commercial centre of Middle Ages Arabia), the Arabic tribe of Quraysh (Adnani Arabs), to which Mohammed belonged, had been in existence. Near Mecca, the tribe was increasing in power. The Quraysh were the guardians of the Kaaba, within the town of Mecca and was the dominant tribe of Mecca upon the appearance of the religion of Islam. The Kaaba was an important Pagan shrine which also brought revenues to Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrims that it attracted. Muhammad was born into the Banu Hashim tribe of the Quraysh clan,^[4] a branch of the Banu Kinanah tribe, descended from Khuzaimah and derived its inheritance from the Khuza’imah (House of Khuza’a).

Muhammad Kaaban

Nakkaş Osman, Istanbul (1595)
(Ed., note artists began representing the veil-covered face of Muhammad from the 16th century onwards)

According to the traditional Islamic view, the Qur’an (Koran) began with revelations to Muhammad Koranic revelations in 610. The verses of the Qur’an were revealed to the Sahabah during Muhammad’s life and were written down in the history of the Qur’an. The rise of Islam begins around the time the Muslims took flight, the Hijra, to the city of Medina. With Islam, the effects of blood feuds among the Arabs were lessened. Compensation was paid in money rather than blood or the culprit himself only could be executed.

In 628, the Meccan tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Madina had signed a truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace, which was broken when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of ‘Bakr’, attacked the tribe of ‘Khuza’ah’, who were allies of the Muslims. In the year 630, Mecca was conquered by the Muslims. Muhammad died in June 632. The Battle of Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of the first caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima.

See also: Spread of Islam and Early Middle Ages

 City-states and Imperial period

Main articles: Succession to Muhammad and Caliphate

After Muhammed died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State: Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar ibn al-Khattab (Umar І, 634-644), Uthman ibn Affan (644-656), Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661). These first Caliphs are known as the “Rashidun” or “rightly guided” Caliphs in Sunni Islam, and oversaw the initial phase of the Muslim conquests, conquering Persia, Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa. Begun in the time of Uthman ibn Affan, the compilation of the Qur’an was finished sometime between 650 and 656, Uthman sent copies of it to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. From then on, thousands of Muslim scribes began copying the Qur’an.^[5] Afterwards, factions arose and the last two Rashidun caliphs were murdered. The death of Uthman was followed by a civil war known as the First Fitna, and the succession to Ali ibn Abi Talib was disputed, leading to the split between the Sunni and Shia traditions in Islam, and later to competing caliphates when the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and Ali set up their own Fatimid caliphate.

After the peace treaty with Ali’s son, Hassan ibn Ali, and the suppression of the revolt of the Kharijites,^[6] Muawiyah I proclaimed himself Caliph in 661 and began consolidating power.^[7] In 663, a new Kharijite revolt resulted in the death of their chief.^[7] In 664, Muawiyah and Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan reached an agreement: the Caliph recognised Ziyad as a brother – Ziyad now adopted the name ibn Abi Sufyan – and appointed him governor at Basra. Muawiyah had arranged for his son Yazid I to be appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680. Husain ibn Ali, by then Muhammad’s only living grandson, refused to swear alleigance to Yazid, and he was killed in the Battle of Karbala the same year, an event still mourned by Shia’s on the Day of Ashura. Unrest continued in the Second Fitna, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to Rhodes, Crete, Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and expanded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered Kabul,^[8] and in 665 pushed into the Maghreb.^[9]

Succession and Umayyad accession

 

Consult particular article for details

 The Umayyad Caliphate

Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled as Caliphs from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of Mecca, Damascus was the capital of their Caliphate. After the death of Abdu’l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr in 666,^[10][11] Muawiyah I had consolidated his power in the Umayyad Caliphate. The causes which occurred in the Al-Rashidun and Warring period which brought about the triumph of the Umayyad dynasty led Muawiyah I to substitute Damascus for Medina as the seat of the Caliphate; an event which led to profound changes in the historical power and Muslim empire, and exercised a considerable influence on its development. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to the supreme power, and gave Islam a new direction. The Umayyads viewed Islam as a religion exclusively for Arabs. Umayyads, the Muslim minority ruling class, structured the state based on a system that the Dhimmis would pay taxes. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. After conversion in the period, non-Arab converts, called mawali, did not achieve social and economic equality with Arab Muslims.

At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than five million square miles, making it one of the largest empires the world had yet seen,^[12] and the fifth largest contiguous empire ever to exist. After the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid Caliphate, they fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031.

[edit] Caliphs at Damascus

 

Consult particular article for details

Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the very gates of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims charge that if anything, he was the instigator of the civil war, and weakened the Muslim nation and divided the Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies^[13] and slander against the Prophet’s family^[14] and even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.^[15] One of Muawiyah’s most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi’a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali, in which Muawiyah said he would not make his son his successor.

During the caliphate of Yazid, Muslims suffered several setbacks. In 682 AD Yazid restored Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the Berbers and Byzantines.^[16] From there Uqba marched on thousands of miles westward towards Tangier, where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the Atlas Mountains.^[17] With cavalry numbering about 300, he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers launched an attack and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period.^[18] This was a major setback for the Muslims, because of this they lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of Rhodes and Crete.

The Mosque of Omar, on Ash-Haram Al-Sharif (the Temple Mount), built by Abd al-Malik; completed at the end of the Second Fitna.

The following years the Umayyad’s reign, under Muawiya II, was marked by civil wars (Second Fitna). This would ease in the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, a well-educated man and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a special currency for the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II (Battle of Sebastopolis) in 692 in Asia Minor. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the only currency exchange in the Muslim world. Also, many reforms happened in his time as regards agriculture and commerce. Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular postal service.

Al-Walid I began the next stage of the Islamic conquests and took the early Islamic empire to its farthest extents. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into Carthage and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer Spain using North African Berber armies. The Visigoths of Spain had been defeated when the Umayyad conquered Lisbon. Spain would be the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the Battle of Tours). In the east, Islamic armies under Muhammad bin Qasim made it as far as the Indus Valley — under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from Spain to India. Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in Ummayad era, it was this tactic that supported the ultimate expansion to Spain. His reign is considered as the apex of Islamic power.

Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of al-Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other was Qutaibah bin Muslim) who had supported the succession of al-Walid’s son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he was no longer alive to pose a threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to Damascus on becoming Caliph, but rather he remained in Ramla in Palestine. Sulayman sent Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik to attack the Byzantine capital (siege of Constantinople). After the intervention of Bulgaria on Byzantine side it ultimately proved to be unsuccessful. The siege of Constantinople failed to take the city and was sustaining heavy losses at the hands of allied Byzantine and Bulgarian forces. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.

 

The Second Arab siege of Constantinople from the 14th-century Bulgarian translation of the Manasses Chronicle.

Umar II, after the death of Sulayman and ascension to the Caliph position, strictly enforced the Sharia.^[19] Though, he would abolish the Jizya tax for converts to Islam, who were former dhimmis and were taxed even after they had converted under other Umayyad rulers. Umar II ordered the first collection of hadith material in an official manner, fearing that some of it might be lost. Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Hazm and Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, are among those who compiled hadiths at Umar’s behest.^[20] Umar also sent Ibn Hatim ibn al-Nu’man to repel Turks invading Azerbaijan. He faced Kharijite uprising and preferred negotiations to armed conflict, personally holding talks with two Kharijite envoys shortly before his death. He recalled the troops besieging Constantinople. This was a serious blow to Umayyad prestige.

Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid’s reign, numerous civil wars began to break out in different parts of the empire.^[21] Yazid pushed into the Caucasus and expanded the Caliphate’s territory. He died in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother Yazid II, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik was ruling an empire with many different problems. He would, however, be effective in attending to these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and it saw a rebirth of reforms that were originated by Umar II. Under Hisham’s rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with natural local restlessness to produce a significant Berber revolt. He was also faced with a revolt by Zayd bin Ali. Hisham put down both revolts. Despite Hisham’s successes, the Abbasids continued to gain power, building power bases in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they would not prove strong enough to make a move yet. Some of them were caught, punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was in the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.^[22] Hisham died in 743.

Al-Walid II saw political intrigue in his reign as Caliph. During the reign of his cousin al-Walid II, Yazid III spoke out against Walid’s “immorality” which included discrimination on behalf of the Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji’iya (believers in human free will).^[23] Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a coup. Following this up with a disbursement of funds from the treasury,^[24] Yazid acceded to the Caliph and explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of Allah and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for six months, having various groups refuse allegiance to him and experiencing the rise of dissident movements, and died. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, only ruled for a short time in 744 before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled from 744 until 750 when he was killed. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and proceeded to assert his authority by force. However, anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. As such, Marwan’s reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. Marwan’s death signalled the end of Umayyad fortunes in the East, and was followed by the mass-killing of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince Abd ar-Rahman who escaped to Spain and founded an Umayyad dynasty there.

Further information: Byzantine–Arab Wars

 Universal period and decentralization

 Islamic Golden Age

Main articles: Abbasid and Islamic Golden Age

The gains of the Ummayad empire were consolidated upon when the Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, with the conquest of the Mediterranean islands including the Balearics and Sicily.^[25] The ruling party had been instated on the wave of dissatisfaction propagated against the Ummayads, cultured by the Abbasid revolutionary, Abu Muslim.^[26][27] Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its “golden age“.^[28] This was also the case for commerce and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Revolution), and the arts and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific Revolution), which prospered, under the rule of Abbasid caliphs

Baghdad was made the capital of the caliphate (moved from the previous capital, Damascus) due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in Persia and Transoxania.^[29] It was at this time however, that the caliphate showed signs of fracture and we witness the uprising of regional dynasties. Although the Ummayad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, Abd ar-Rahman I, was able to flee to Spain and establish an independent caliphate there in 756. In the Maghreb region, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab Aghlabids as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise the authority of the central caliphate. Aghlabid rule was short lived, as they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called “al-Qahirah” (meaning “the planet of victory”, known today as Cairo). Similar was the case in Persia, where the Turkic Ghaznavids managed to snatch power from the Abbasids.^[30][31] Whatever temporal power of the Abbasids remained had been consumed by the Great Seljuq Empire (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia), in 1055.^[29]

During this time, expansion continued, sometimes by military warfare, sometimes by peaceful proselytism.^[25] The first stage in the conquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 — 1209) years later, the area up to the Ganges river had been conquered. In sub-Saharan West Africa, it was just after the year 1000 that Islam was established. Muslim rulers are known to have been in Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence later, in the 13th century.^[25]

The Abbasids began to develop Islamic initiatives aimed at greater unity. Islamic faith and mosques separated by doctrine, history, and practice were driven to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration in general. According to Ira Lapidus, “The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali“.^[32] The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic ecumenism, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the Ummah in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the Shariah was codified, and the four Madhabs were established and built. This era also saw the rise of classical Sufism. The achievement, however, was completion of the canonical collections of Hadith of Sahih Bukhari and others.^[33] Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic religions, the Qur’an identifying Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and “Sabi’un” or “baptists” (usually taken as a reference to the Mandeans and related Mesopotamian groups) as “people of the book”. Toward the begnning of the high Middle Ages, the Abbasids saw the doctrines of the Sunni and Shia, two major denominations of Islam, created and the divisions of the world beyond their control would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.

In addition, the Caliphate under the Abbasid evolved into an Islamic monarchy (unitary system of government) and the regional Sultanate and Emirate governors’ existence, validity, or legality were acknowledge for unity of the state.^[34] In early Islamic philosophy of the Iberian Umayyads, Averroes presented an argument in The Decisive Treatise providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official Ash’ari theology, thus Averroism has been considered a precursor to modern secularism.^[35][36]

[edit] Golden Baghdad Abbasids

Early Middle Ages

 

Consult particular article for details

According to Arab sources in the year 750, Al-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the discriminatory Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and victory at the Battle of the Zab, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.

In Al-Mansur‘s time, there was an emergence of Persian scholarship. Also, there was a conversion of many non-Arabs to Islam. The Umayyads actively tried to discourage conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. The inclusiveness of the Abbasid regime, and that of al-Mansur, saw the expansion of Islam among its territory; in 750, roughly 8% of residents in the Caliphate were Muslims. This would double to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur’s reign. Al-Mahdi, whose name means “Rightly-guided” or “Redeemer”, was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. The cosmopolitan city of Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi’s reign. The city attracted immigrants from all of Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia, and lands as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. It became the world’s largest city. Al-Hadi was, like his father, very open to the people of his empire and allowed citizens to visit him in the palace at Baghdad to address him. As such, he was considered an “enlightened ruler”, and continued the progressive moves of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was wreaked with numerous military conflicts.

The military conflicts would subside as Harun al-Rashid ruled. Al-Rashid reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. He established the library Bayt al-Hikma (“House of Wisdom”) and the arts and music flourished during his reign. The family of Barmakids which played a deciding role in establishing the Abbasid Caliphate declined gradually during his rule.

Al-Amin, according to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to Mecca, received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced Internal rebellions. The rebellion by Tahir resulted in Baghdad being besieged. Tahir led reinforcements to regain positions lost by another officer. When Tahir pushed into the city, Al-Amin sought to negotiate safe passage out. Tahir agreed on the condition Al-Amin turn over his sceptre, seal and other signs of being caliph. Al-Amin tried to leave on a boat and rejected warnings he should wait. Tahir noticed the boat. Al-Amin was thrown into the water, swam to shore, was captured and executed. His head was placed on the Al-Anbar Gate.

 Regional powers

The Abbasids soon became caught within a three-way rivalry of Coptic Arabs, Indo-Persians, and the immigrant Turks.^[37] In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.^[38] The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs belong to the Sunnite sect; the tenets of the Shiites are professed by the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Independent dynasties, but still under the influence of the theoretical leadership of Abbasid caliphs, appeared in the Muslim world, and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimate Muslim dynasties. The first of such dynasties was the Tahirid dynasty which was founded during the caliph Al-Ma’mun in the eastern portions of the empire, in Khorasan, and was nominally subject to the Abbasid caliphate. Subsequent similar dynasties which were independent yet recognized by the Abbasid caliph were the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.

High Baghdad Abbasids

Early Middle Ages

 

Consult particular article for details

On Al-Amin’s death, Al-Ma’mun became Caliph. Al-Ma’mun grew the Abbasid empire somewhat during his reign and dealt with rebellions.^[39] Al-Ma’mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor for his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful in the state, contrary to Al-Ma’mun’s desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as Al-Ma’mun’s own policies alienated them and his other opponents.

Al-Ma’mun directed his efforts toward the centralization of power and the certainty of succession. Although Al-Mahdi had proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and had also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy, religious scholars in the Islamic world believed that Al-Ma’mun was overstepping his bounds in the Mihna. The Mihna was the Abbasid inquisitions.^[40] The Ulama emerged as a real force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma’mun’s reign for opposing the inquisitions, which was initiated in 833, only four months before he died. The Ulema and the major Islamic law schools became truly defined in the period of Al-Ma’mun and Sunnism, as a religion of legalism, became defined in parallel. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi’a Islam began to become more pronounced.

In the time Al-Ma’mun as Caliph, the Arabs and the Byzantines border wars increased. Al-Ma’mun made preparations for a major campaign and died on the way while leading an expedition in Sardis. Al-Ma’mun’s relations with the Byzantine Greeks is marked by his efforts in the translation of Greek philosophy and science. Al-Ma’mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.^[41] His reign also saw alchemy developed and the pioneers of the science. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza looking for knowledge and treasure. He entered the pyramid by tunneling into the Great Pyramid near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma’mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded not by his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma’mun, but by his half-brother, Al-Mu’tasim.

As Caliph, Al-Mu’tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma’mun’s military base at Tyana. He dealt with Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph, as faced his predecessor, was the uprising of Babak Khorramdin, but overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory of this reign. The Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack against a number of Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu’tasim launched a well planned response. Al-Afshin met and defeated Theophilus at the Battle of Anzen. On his return home, he became aware of a serious military commanders conspiracy which lead to reliance of this caliph and his successors upon Turkish commanders and the ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the Mamluk system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly vanished during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu’tasim’s life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.

In Al-Mu’tasim’s reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tributes and oversight functions. The independence of the Tahirids contributed to the decline of Abbasid supremacy in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu’tasim followed the footstep of his half-brother al-Ma’mun. He continued his predecessors support for the islamic sect of Mu’tazila, applying his brutal military methods for torture. Also of note, the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi was employed by Al-Mu’tasim, and tutored the Caliph’s son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph’s patronage.

Al-Wathiq succeeded his father, Al-Mutasim. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. He, using a famous sword, personally joined in the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups continued to widen, with the Turkish forces gaining power. He also secured a captive exchange of with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talents and is reputed to have composed over one-hundred songs.

When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, Al-Mutawakkil succeeded him to the Caliph position. Al-Mutawakkil’s reign is remembered for its many reforms and viewed as a golden age of the Abbasids. He would be the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty would fall into a decline. Al-Mutawakkil put an end to the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the Great Mosque of Samarra.^[42] This was part of an extension of Samarra eastwards that built upon part of the walled royal hunting park. Al-Mutawakkil also built many palaces. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met the famous Byzantine theologian Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent to tighten the diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate in a state mission by the Emperor Michael III. Al-Mutawakkil was also keen to involve himself in many religious debates, something that would show in his actions against different minorities. The Shīʻa population faced repression and this was embodied in the destruction of the shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī, an action that was carried out obstensibly in order to stop pilgrimages to that site. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably the Byzantines, from who Sicily was captured. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated, murdered by a Turkish soldier.

Al-Muntasir succeeded to the throne of the Caliphate on that same day Al-Mutawakkil was killed with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the crime. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. In his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir’s reign ended with his death of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select al-Muntasir successor. and elected Al-Musta’in. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad, displeased at the choice, attacked. Baghdad had yet to learn that the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but had passed into other hands. After the Muslim campaign against the Christians which were unfortunate for the caliphate, people blamed the Turks that had brought disaster on the faith and murdered their Caliphs; setting up others at their pleasure. After the Turks besiege Baghdad, Al-Musta’in planned to abdicate to Al-Mu’tazz but was put to death by the order of Al-Mu’tazz. Al-Mu’tazz was placed upon the throne by the Turks, the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.

High Abbasids Jurisprudence

Four constructions of Islamite law Abu Hanifa (Iraq teacher) Malik bin Anas (Medina Imam) Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i (Egyptian Iman) Ahmad ibn Hanbal (Baghdad teacher)

Early Abbasids Literature and Science

Hunayn ibn Ishaq, physician, Greek translator; Ibn Fadlan, explorer; Al Battani, astronomer; Tabari, historian and theologian; Al-Razi, philosopher, medic, chemist; Al-Farabi, chemist and philosopher; Abu Nasr Mansur, mathematician; Alhazen, mathematician; Al-Biruni, mathematician, astronomer, physicist; Omar Khayyám, poet, mathematician, and astronomer; Mansur Al-Hallaj, Sufism mystic, writer and teacher

Al-Mu’tazz proved but too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters and was surrounded by parties each jealous of the other. At Samarra, the Turks were having problems with the “Westerns” (Berbers and Moors); while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta’in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu’tazz put to death his brothers, Al-Mu’eiyyad and Abu Ahmed. The revenues were squandered at the reckless Court, which resulted in a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu’tazz was shortly thereafter depose, with brutal inhumanity. Al-Muhtadi was next was appointed to be the Caliph. He was a firm and virtuous Caliph compared to the earlier appoint Caliphs, though the Turks held the power of the state. Under him, the Court soon saw a transformation of virtue. He, though, was killed by the Turks soon after ascending to the throne. Al-Mu’tamid next held the title of caliph for 23 years, though he was a largely a ruler in name only. After the Zanj Rebellion, Al-Mu’tamid summoned al-Muwaffak to help him. From that point forward, Al-Muwaffaq essentially ruled as Caliph in all but name. The Hamdanids were founded by Hamdan ibn Hamdun (after whom it is named), when he was appointed governor of Mardin in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu’tamid later transferred substantial authority to his son, al-Mu’tadid, and never regained any real power. The Tulunids were the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time from the central authority of the Abbasids.

Al-Mu’tadid ably administer the Caliphate. Egypt returned to is allegiance and Mesopotamia was for the time restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi’a community, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu’tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu’tadid’s death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl, Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne.

Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father’s secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate was threatened by various dangers, such as the Carmathians, which were overcome. Hostilities prevailed more or less with the Byzantines, who were not slow to take advantage of the difficulties of the Caliphate. War was kept up with various fortune on both sides. Upon his death, the vazir chose Al-Muqtadir as the next Caliph. Al-Muqtadir’s reign was a constant record of his thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall, or on the assassination, of another. The long reign of this Caliph brought the Empire to the lowest ebb. The stand made during the last three reigns to stay the downward progress at last came to an end and the Abbasid continued its decline. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul had thrown off its dependence, and the Greeks could make raids at pleasure on the helpless border. In the East, thought, there still was kept up a formal recognition of the Caliphate, even by those who virtually claimed their independence.

At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner^[43] while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to the disorder of the city of Baghdad. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals in the capital. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates. On the death of al-Muqtadir, the courtiers chose the late Caliph’s brother al-Qahir; but he was an even worse than al-Muqtadir. Refusing to abdicate, his eyes were blinded, and he was cast into prison.

Ar-Radi, son of al-Muqtadir, ascended to the position of Calip but saw only a succession of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the mere tool of the de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik (Amir al-Umara; ‘Amir of the Amirs’). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was conjoined with the Caliph’s in the public prayers. Around this period, the Hanbalis, supported by popular sentiment, carried things and set up in fact a kind of ‘Sunni inquisition’. Ar-Radi is commonly spoken of as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies to discuss with philosophers and discuss the questions of the day, or to take counsel on the affairs of State; the last to distribute largess among the needy, or to interpose to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.

In the late mid-930s, the Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title “Wali” reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, the first governor (Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years, the last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for “prince” by the Caliph.

Also in the 930s, the founders of the Būyid confederation were ‘Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and Aḥmad. Originally a soldier in the service of the Ziyārīds of Ṭabaristān, ‘Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from Baghdad named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the ‘Abbāsid Caliphate. While they accepted the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad, the Būyid rulers assumed effective control of the state. The Būyid confederation had large territorial gains. Fars and Jibal were conquered. Central Iraq, which submitted in 945, the Būyids took Kermān (967), Oman (967), the Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and Gorgan (981). After this, however, the Būyids went into a slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming de facto independent.^[44]

[edit] Middle Baghdad Abbasids

Early High Middle Ages

 

Consult particular article for details

Mediterrean Region and the States of the Crusades

Kingdom of Sicily Fatimid Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate Sm. Turkic states Crusader states Komnenian Byzantines Kingdom of Hungary

During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. Bajkam, Amir al-Umara, contented himself with despatching to Baghdad his secretary, who assembled the chief men to elect a successor. The choice fell on the Al-Muttaqi. Bajkam shortly thereafter went out on a hunting party and met his death at the hands of a band of marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul and was welcomed by the Hamdanid. The Hamdanid assassinated Ibn Raik and the Hamdanid Nasir ad-Daula advanced on Baghdad. At Baghdad, mercenaries and the well-organised Turks repelled the Hamdanid; the Turkish general Tuzun gained the position of Amir al-Umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh a conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped him escape; fleeing to Mosul and, after, to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated and Al-Muttaqi was at Ar Raqqah. Later, Al-Muttaqi went to Tuzun and was deposed from the Caliphate. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph’s cousin as successor, with the title of Al-Mustakfi. Tuzun, with the Caliph, marched against the Buwayhid dynasty and the Hamdanids. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by Abu Ja’far, one of his generals. The Buwayhids marched on Baghdad and Abu Ja’far with the Caliph fled into hiding. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed the command and the Caliph was in abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city rose in chaos, and the Caliph’s palace was looted.

Significant Middle Abbasid Muslims

Ibn Rushd (Averoes), philosopher; al-Farabi, Persian (Soghdian) philosopher; Al-Mutanebbi, Arabic poet; Abu Ali Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna), physician, philosopher, and scientist

After the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, Al-Muti became caliph. the office was shorn real power and Shi’a observances were set up. the Buwayhids maintained their hold on Baghdad over one hundred years. The Caliphate of Baghdad through the Buwayhid reign was at its lowest ebb but was recognized religiously, except Iberia. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula was prevented from raising to throne a Shi’a Caliph by alarm for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, not in the capital alone, but all around. The next Abbasid Baghdad Caliph, Al-Ta’i, saw the strife of Syria’s factions — Fatimid, Turkish, and Carmathian. The Buwayhid dynasyty was also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the responsibility of the petty states on the borders of the dominion. After Byzantine Emperor John Tzimisces‘ campaign, Al-Ta’i was deposed. Al-Qadir was recalled and appointed to the office. During his Caliphate, Mahmud of Ghazni look after the empire. The great Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, held always a friendly attitude towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. The global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 per cent as against the Christian population of 10 per cent by 1000. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and decreed against heresies such as the Baghdad Manifesto and the createdness of the Qurʾan. He in fact outlawed the Muʿtazila and the end of Islamic philosophy. During this and the next Caliphs’ period, Islamic literature, especially Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids. During Al-Qa’im‘s reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power. Toghrül overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well received both by chiefs and people. In Bahrain, the Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa. Arabia, recovered from the Fatimids, acknowledged again the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi was honored by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I, during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan, though, grew critical of the Caliph’s interference in affairs of state but died before deposing the last of the Caliphs of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.

[edit] Late Baghdad Abbasids

Late High Middle Ages

 

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The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the Crusades to the Seventh Crusade. Here, the Baghdad Abbasids reign began with Al-Mustazhir. Al-Mustadhir was politically irrelevant, despite the civil strife at home and the appearance of the First Crusade in Syria. An attempt was even made by Raymond IV of Toulouse to attack Baghdad, but he was defeated at the Battle of Manzikert. The global Muslim population had climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100. In the Late Baghdad Abbasids, Jerusalem was captured by the crusaders and its inhabitants were massacred. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the Al-Aqsa Mosque from hands of the European Crusaders (Muslim infidels) . The eastern provinces, though, were occupied with their own troubles. Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the Franks (the name used by Muslims for the crusaders). Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph were interested in sending an army west.

Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence as a ruler while the sultan Mahmud II of Great Seljuq was engaged in war in the East. The Banu Mazyad (Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn Sadaqa^[45] (emir of Al-Hilla), plundering Bosra and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas’ud. Dubays was however crushed by a Seljuq army under Zengi, founder of Zengid dynasty. Mahmud’s death was followed by a Seljuq western territories civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas’ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East by certain rebel members, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays. Zengi was beaten and fled. The Caliph pursued him to Mosul, and besieged him there but without success for three months. Mas’ud supported Zengi, besieged by al-Mustarshid’s troops in Mosul. It was nonetheless a milestone in the revival of the military power of the caliphate.

After the siege of Damascus (1134),^[46] Zengi undertook operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid launched a military campaign against sultan Mas’ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.^[47] His son, Al-Rashid failed at independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultan. Mas’ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan’s power restored, a council was held, the Caliph deposed, and his uncle, son of Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to Isfahan and was killed by Hashshashins.

Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks afforded al-Muqtafi opportunity of not only maintaining his authority in Baghdad, but also extending it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the Nestorian patriarch Abdisho III. The Caliph, as the Crusade was raging furiously, successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the Siege of Baghdad (1157). The Sultan and the Caliph despatched men in response to an appeal Zengi, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, had any enthusiasm in war against Crusaders. The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid, saw the Fatimid dynasty extinguished (lasting over 260 years) by Saladin and thus the spiritual supremacy of the Abbasids again prevailed. Al-Mustadi‘s reign was during the time that Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and declared his allegiance to the Abbasids. An-Nasir, “The Victor for the Religion of God“, attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His long reign of forty-seven years is chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which so soon brought his own dynasty to an end. His son, Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir’s grandson, Al-Mustansir, was made caliph. Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236 Ögedei Khan commanded to raise up Khorassan and populated Herat. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in Mughan plain, Azerbaijan. Realizing the danger of the Mongols, rulers of Mosul and Cilician Armenia submitted to the Great Khan. Chormaqan divided the Transcaucasia region into three districts based on military hierarchy.^[48] In Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight tumens.^[49] By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds, and all of Afghanistan and Kashmir.^[50]

Al-Musta’sim was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan which swept through the Transoxiana and Khorasan. Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed an Abbasid Caliph in Cairo, but they were symbolic as the late Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad were.

[edit] Cairo Abbasid Caliphs

Abbasid “shadow” caliph of Cairo
Late Middle Ages

 

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The Abbasid “shadow” caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the Mamluk sultans and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded Al-Musta’in were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta’in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to shortly hold political power. Al-Mutawakkil III was the last “shadow” caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.

 Fatimid Empire

“Islamic Cairo” building was named after Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, built by Fatimid vizier Gawhar Al-Siqilli, and extended by Badr al-Gamali.

The Fatimids had their origins in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria). The dynasty was founded in 909 by ʻAbdullāh al-Mahdī Billah, who legitimised his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter Fātima as-Zahra and her husband ʻAlī ibn-Abī-Tālib, the first Shīʻa Imām, hence the name al-Fātimiyyūn “Fatimid”.

Abdullāh al-Mahdi’s control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his capital in Tunisia.

The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the Ikhshidid dynasty and founding a capital at al-Qāhira(Cairo) in 969.^[51] The name was a reference to the planet Mars, “The Subduer”, which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer the surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed over into Sicily and southern Italy.

Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz.^[52] Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.

Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than on heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, like the Sunnis, were just as to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government founded on ability.^[53] There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.

The Fatimid palace was two parts. It used to be in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street.^[54]

[edit] Fatimid caliphs

Early and High Middle Ages

 

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Also see: Cairo Abbasid Caliphs (above)

During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the pulpits of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Abbasid Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa’s existence. Subsequently, they traveled towards the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi’s father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned in control the Dawa’s affairs. He sent two Dai’s to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of information gatherers helped Al Mahdi to be updated on each development which took place in North Africa.

After establishing the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty, claims to genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi began his conquest by establishing his headquarters at Salamiyah and moving towards north-western Africa, under Aghlabid rule, following the success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi, was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.

The interiors of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain decorated with arabesque designs.

Main articles: Umayyad conquest of Hispania, Al-Andalus, and Taifa

The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq’s commander, Musa bin Nusair crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. There are some later Arabic and Christian sources that present an earlier raid by a certain Ṭārif in 710 and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to an Arab attack incited by Erwig during the reign of Wamba (672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.^[55]

The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in Damascus. After the Abbasids came to power in the, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of Emir of Córdoba(912-961).^[56] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as Córdoba. Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,^[57] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.^[58] Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.^[59]

The rule of the Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence.^[60] Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called taifa kingdoms (Arabic, Muluk al-ṭawā’if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those petty kingdoms would then weaken the power of the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas such as that of Seville would be forced to enter into alliances with the Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.^[61]

See also: Reconquista and Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula

[edit] Emirs of Córdoba

Main article: Emirs of Córdoba

 

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Abd al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave, a freedman) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the Abbasid Revolution. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was only one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure if he would be welcomed or not in that far-flung province of the empire. Following the Berber Revolt (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the Ummah torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders – Obeid Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga.

During his brief time in Málaga, he was able to amass local support quickly. News of the prince’s arrival spread like wildfire throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he was prepared to take advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to control Zaragoza. The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus saw two contingents meeting at the Guadalquivir river, just outside of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). After a long and difficult fight, Rahman I was victorious with his enemies escaping the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba. A counterattack was mounted but negotiations were ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.^[62] One final act had to be performed, however: al-Fihri’s general, al-Sumayl, had to be dealt with, and he was garroted in Córdoba’s jail. Al-Andalus was a safe haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.

In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had planne to depose the Umayyad emir of al-Andalus. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, with most of the Abbasid army killed. The heads of the main Abbasid leaders were cut off. Their heads were preserved in salt, and identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled together in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca.Rahman I continued to put down rebellions in al-Andalus. Near the end of his life, it is said that Abd al-Rahman became increasingly paranoid and would sequester himself to his palaces.

Upon his death, Rahman I’s successor was his son Hisham I. Hisham I, born in Córdoba, built many mosques and completed the Mezquita. He called for a jihad that resulted in a campaign against the Kingdom of Asturias and the County of Toulouse; in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange by William of Gellone, first cousin to Charlemagne. His successor Al-Hakam I came to power and was challenged by his uncles, sons of Rahman I. Abdallah went to the court of Charlemagne in Aix-la-Chapelle to negotiate for aid. In the mean time Córdoba was attacked, but was defended. Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and Mérida.

Abd ar-Rahman II, the son of Hakam I, succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman III repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cadiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He responded to William of Septimania‘s requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald‘s nominations.

Muhammad I‘s reign was marked by the movements of the Muladi (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and Mozarabs (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I and succeeded by his son Mundhir I. Mundhir I, during the reign of his father, commanded the military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions. At his father’s death, Mundhir I inherited the throne of Córdoba. During the two years of reign Mundhir I fought against Umar ibn Hafsun. Mundhir I died in 888 at Bobastro and his brother Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi succeeded him. Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. Umawi’s government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families that did not accept his authority. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi’s brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi’s father, who named as successor Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.

• Abdul Qavi Desnavi
• Muhammad Husain Azad
• Altaf Hussain Maulana Hali
• Shibli Nomani
• Abdur Rahman Bijnori
• Allama Niyaz Fatehpuri
• Rasheed Ahmad Siddiqi
• Syed Abid Ali Abid
• Ehtesham Hussain
• Syed Waqar Azeem
• Majnun Gorakhpuri
• Mumtaz Hussain
• Ali Sardar Jafri
• Malik Ram
• Gopi Chand Narang
• Shamsur Rahman Faruqi
• Gyan Chand
• Wazir Agha
• Waris Alwi
• Gopi Chand Narang
• Muzaffar Hanfi
• Aslam Farrukhi

Progressive Writers Movement/ ( ترقی پسند تحریک)

According to The Dawn, “Progressive Writers Movement” in Urdu literature was the strongest movement after Sir Syed’s education movement. The progressives contributed to Urdu literature some of the finest pieces of fiction and poetry. Undoubtedly, they were the trend-setters for the coming generation of writers, and their role cannot be denigrated or denied.” [1] Aamir Sohail(Abbottabad Public School,Abbottabad,Pakistan)

Modernism

The modernist movement started in Urdu literature near 1960. The two most eminent names in this movement emerged are Shamsur Rehman Farooqui and Gopichand Narang. Eminent poets like Noon Meem Rashid and Meeraji are related to it. Apart from them a number of other poets like Zafer Iqbal, Nasir Kazmi, Bashir Bader and Shahryar are related to this movement. This movement laid more stress on symbolic and other indirect expressions as opposed to direct and clear expressions

Post-Modernism

The post modernism was introduced in a big way by Gopi Chand Narang. There are many other critics in Urdu literature who are also attached to this approach of criticism. The post modernism does not claim to be a movement and does not demand any writer to adopt a particular style of writing. It generally concentrates on a method of understanding the contemporary literature in the light of its content – mostly to the features like feminism, dalit, regional and other types of literature as opposed to a seeking uniformity in the global literature on the basis of internationally established trends.

Independent Writers

By the end of the 1980s the atmosphere in Urdu literature became very depressing.The progressive movement was almost dead and the modernist movement had started showing it’s complete infertility. But this was also time for upsurge of new creative forces which was basically rooted in the new life that was metamorphosing the socio-economic and political climate in the sub-continent after the days of partition and freedom. It was under this climate that the a new era of fiction started withthe publication of Paigham Afaqui’s novel Makaan. Almost allergic and fed up with the attempts of various literary movements to influence the styles and thoughts of the writers and the literary politics emerging out of the commitments to the movements which created a vicious circle of promoting chosen writers and misuse of resources and awards for promoting their own brands by these movements,Paigham Afaqui and other writers refused to be identified by any movement and displayed complete independence in using personally developed styles and technique for writing novel and explored their own philosophy and vision of life that suited their need.It was a serious departure from the theme of partition which dominated writers like Qurtul Ain haider and Abdullah Hussain and the theme of existentialism which was the benchmark of modernism. Writers like Ghazanfer and Musharraf Alam Zauqi have further widened the horizons of new themes and concerned.

Urdu Journalism

The Persian newspapers of West Bengal were fore-runners of the Urdu press. Two prominent periodicals were Jam-i-Jahan-Numa, founded by Lal Sadasukh Lal in 1822 and Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Mirror of News) by Raja Rammohan Roy. After the decline of Persian as an official language, Urdu gained prominence. There was extensive growth in Urdu jurnalism from the 1850s till Independence in 1947.

On 14 January 1850, Munshi Harsukh Rai started the weekly Kohinoor, which had a remarkably high (for those times) circulation of 350 copies. In 1858, Manbir Kabiruddin started the Urdu Guide, the first Urdu daily, from Calcutta. Another important paper founded that year was Roznamha-e-Punjab from Lahore. Oudh Akhbar by Munshi Nawal Kishore was the first Urdu newspaper from Lucknow, also begun in 1858.

The first Urdu newspapers of Delhi were Fawaid-ul-Nazarin and Kiran-us-Sadai, founded by Rama Chandra in 1852. The Urdu press in Delhi became highly critical of the British government. The best example of them is the Urdu Akhbar, edited by Syed Hasan, which highlighted many civic issues like drainage, sanitation, adulteration of food, and corruption.

In 1877, Maulvi Nasir Ali, one of the founders of Anjuman Islamia- the Islamic intellectual and political movement- founded 3 newspapers- Nusrat-ul-Akhbar, Nusrat-ul-Islam and Mihir-e-Darakhshan. All three focused on current civil and political affairs and were valuable aids of Muslim empowerment. In 1877, Oudh Punch, the first humour magazine in Urdu was started by Sajjid Hussain. The first women’s journal in Urdu was Akhbar-un-Nisa.

Urdu journalism took on a strongly nationalistic note towards the turn of the 20th century. Zameendar, was started in Lahore in 1903. It was the first Urdu newspaper to subscribe to news agencies. Zameendar was intensely nationalistic, which boosted its circulation to over 30,000 copies. In 1902, Maulvi Sanaullah Khan started the weekly Watan, meaning motherland. Watan was intensely nationalistic and continued for 33 years. Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar started Naqeeb-e-Hamdard in 1912. Another powerful political periodical was the Madina, edited by Hamidul Ansari.

The greatest Urdu periodical that time was Al Hilal, started by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. (refer notes).

In 1919, the Pratap was started in Lahore by Mahshe Krishnan. It vigorously supported Gandhi’s policies and the Indian National Congress. It was a victim of government harassment and suspended publication several times. It had great influence among the Urdu reading Hindus of Punjab and Delhi.

In 1923, Swami Shraddhanand founded the Tej with Lala Deshbandhu Gupta as editor. It had a wide circulation in Rajasthan, U.P. and Delhi. It was confiscated several times by the government and banned in a number of princely states. In the same year, 1923, the Arya Samaj started the Milap, a daily in Lahore. It was known for its powerful nationalistic editorials. Jawaharlal Nehru founded Qaumi Awaaz in 1945.

Urdu journalism suffered heavily, during and after Partition. Riots in Lahore lead to mobs raiding the office of Milap and burning machines and newsprint. Its Managing Editor, Ranbir was stabbed and the paper was closed for six weeks. It then shifted to Delhi. Due to the unrest, the Pratap also shifted to Delhi.

Some of the Urdu newspapers after partition in India are Dawat, now a bi-weekly, started by the Jamat-e-Islami Hind. Maulana Abdul Waheed Siddiqui started Nai Duniya, a popular Urdu weekly, now run by his son Shaheed Siddiqui. The Sahara Group started a weekly-Aalmi Sahara.There are more number of urdu newspapers published in hyderabad, IndiaThe Siasat Daily, The Munsif Daily, Indian Etemaad and Rehnuama E Deccan.Bombay now Mumbai also have some good publication of urdu daily The inquilab daily and Urdu Times and from West Bengal Urdu newspapers like The Azad Hind daily, The Akhbaar -e- Mashriq daily, The Aabshaar daily and The rashtriya Sahara daily are also being brought out from CALCUTTA at present Kolkata
In Pakistan the Daily Jang is one of the most widely circulated newspapers in the country. Other popular news papers are Daily Imroze, Daily Mashriq, Khabrain, Millat and Nawa-i-Waqt.

Urdu Drama evolved from the prevailing dramatic traditions of North India shaping Rahas or Raas as practiced by exponents like Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh. His dramatic experiments led to the famous Inder Sabha of Amanat and later this tradition took the shape of Parsi Theatre. Agha Hashr Kashmiri is culmination of this tradition.

In some way or other, Urdu theatre tradition has greatly influenced modern Indian theatre. Among all the languages Urdu(which was called Hindi by early writers), along with Gujrati,Marathi and Bengali theatres have kept flourishing and demand for its writers and artists has not subsided by the drama aficionados. For Urdu drama, no place is better than Bombay Film industry otherwise known as Hindi film industry. All the early gems of Urdu Theatre (performed by Parsi Companies) were made into films. Urdu Dramatic tradition has been a spectator’s delight since 100 years and counting.

Drama as a theme is made up of several elements. It focuses on life and different aspects of it. The thing to be noticed here is that drama on stage imitates drama in life. It has been said that, there has always been a mutual relationship between theatre and real life. Great historical personalities like Shakespeare have influenced Modern Urdu tradition to a large extent when Indian, Iranian, Turkish stories and folk was adapted for stage with heavy doses of Urdu Poetry. In modern times writers like Imtiaz Ali Taj, Rafi Peer, Krishan Chander, Manto, Upender Nath Ashk, Ghulam Rabbani, Prof. Mujeeb and many others shaped this tradition.

While Prof Hasan, Ghulam jeelani, J.N,Kaushal, Shameem Hanfi, Jameel Shaidayi etc. belong to the old generation, contemporary writers like Danish Iqbal, Sayeed Alam, Shahid Anwar,Iqbal Niyazi and Anwar are few post modern Play wrights actively contributing in the field of Urdu Drama.

Sayeed Alam is known for his wit and humour and more particularly for Plays like ‘Ghalib in New Delhi’ ‘Big B’and many other gems which are regularly staged for massive turn out of theatre lovers. Maulana Azad is his magnum opus both for its content and style.

Danish Iqbal’s ‘Dara Shikoh’ directed by M S Sathyu is considered a modern classic for the use of newer theatre techniques and contemporary perspective. His other Plays are ‘Sahir’ on the famous lyricist and revolutionary poet. ‘Kuchh Ishq kiya Kuchh Kaam’ is another Play written by Danish which is basically a Celebration of the Faiz’s Poetry, featuring events from the early part of his life, particularly the events and incidents of pre-partition days which shaped his life and ideals. ‘Chand Roz Aur Meri Jaan’ – another Play inspired from Faiz’s letters written from various jails during the Rawalpindi Conspiracy days. He has written 14 other Plays including ‘Dilli Jo Ek Shehr Thaa’ and ‘Main Gaya Waqt Nahin hoon’. Shahid’s ‘Three B’ is also a significant Play. He has been associated with amny groups like ‘Natwa’and others. Zaheer Anwar has kept the flag of Urdu Theatre flying in Kolkata. Unlike the writers of previous generartion Sayeed, Shahid, Danish iqbal and Zaheer do not write bookish Plays but their work is a product of vigorous performing tradition.Iqbal Niyazi of Mumbai has written several plays in urdu.his play”AUR KITNE JALYANWALA BAUGH??”won National award other awards. Hence this is the only generartion after Amanat and Agha Hashr who actually write for stage and not for libraries.

Urdu literature has included the short story form for slightly more than one hundred years. During this period it has passed through some major phases like early romantic period, progressive writings, modernist writings and current phase. Although a number of writers, both men and women, contributed to the Urdu short story literature in the first phase (including both romantic stories and social criticisms), the short story crystallized as a regular part of Urdu literature in the growth of writings of Munshi Premchand. His notable short stories are, among many others, “Kafan” and “Poos Ki Raat”. The Urdu short story gained momentum with the phenomenal publication of Angare, a collection of many writers towards the end of the life of Premchand. Writers like Ghulam Abbas, Manto, Rajinder Singh Bedi, Krishan Chander, and Ismat Chughtai, to name but a few, turned the short story into a major genre of Urdu literature.

The next generation was Urdu short story writers included Qurratulain Hyder, Qazi Abdul Sattar, and Joginder Paul. The short story tradition continues with younger generation writers like Zahida Hina and Paigham Afaqui, Syed Mohd Ashraf, and Salam Bin Razzaq.

Urdu short stories have dealt with a wide range of the dimensions of life though the most famous stories belong are about the trauma of the partition of the sub-continent and violence generated out of it. Towards the end of the last century, short stories became grounded in the complexity of daily life which can be seen in the unique collection of short stories in Paigham Afaqui‘s Mafia. Entirely different in approach is the collection of short stories Taus Chaman Ka Maina by Nayyer Masood.

Notable Urdu Short Fiction (Afsana) writers of 19th and 20th century include:

• Munshi Premchand
• Saadat hasan manto
• Ali Abbas Hussaini
• Hayatullah Ansari
• Krishan chander
• Rajinder Singh Bedi
• Ismat chughtai
• Upendranath Ashk
• Mumtaz Mufti
• Balwant Singh
• Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi
• Ghulam Abbas
• Shaukat Siddiqui
• Qudrat Ullah Shahab
• Ashfaq Ahmed
• Khwaja Ahmad Abbas
• Joginder Paul
• Abdul Hameed
• khadija Mastoor
• Intizar Hussain
• Masaud Mufti
• Syed Qasim Mahmood
• Wajida tabassum
• Iqbal Mateen
• jeelani bano
• Bano Qudsia
• Asad Muhammad Khan
• Mansha Yaad
• Rasheed Amjad
• Salam Bin Razzaq
• Bushra Rehman
• Musharaf Alam Zauqi
• Asif Farrukhi
• Muhammad Ilyas
• Khakan Sajid
• Hamid Saraj
• Muhammad Asim Butt
• Zafar Oganvi
• Anis Rafi
• Shahira Masroor
• Abdus Samad
• Paigham Afaqi
• Muhammad Ilyas